Principal Areas of Current Work: ..... 1. Cochlear mechanics. I am interested in the ways that outer hair cells (OHC) contribute to cochlear function. Specifically, I think there are fundamental ideas and assumptions often made in looking at this problem that have confused and complicated the picture. Some conceptually (and hopefully in practice) simple physiological and optical measurements should complement existing data relevant to the way in which OHCs cause displacements in the cochlea and clarify the relevance of these ideas. Cochlear mechanics remains one of the most challenging areas of classical biophysics, and structure-function relationships. ..... 2. Certainty-Based Marking. I devote a major part of my time in retirement to dissemination of this innovative practice to improve and reinforce students' ability to identify and probe uncertainty in their thinking and their knowledge. Though this activity diminishes my neuroscience research activity, it stems indirectly from it, and I regard it as of enormous importance for education worldwide, and on a cusp of widespread adoption. ..... Former areas of work: Memory, LTP, Sleep, Cellular Neurophysiology, Potasium Homeostasis, Glial Physiology, Cortical Spreading Depression, Migraine, MRI, MEG, Vestibular Assessment. Neural Computation: associative memory, efficient representation, the role of sleep in consolidation and the representation of uncertainty in recall.